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The Byzantine Empire is a term used by modern historians to distinguish the Eastern Roman Empire after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the Medieval period, from its earlier classic incarnation. The process by which the empire waned, and from when to mark its decline is matter of scholarly debate. Enlightenment writers such as Edward Gibbon, their view colored by pro-western and anti-clerical biases, tended to see the whole ten century history empire as a sad codicil to the Roman Empire of Antiquity. Late-20th-century and 21st-century historians have instead emphasized the empire's remarkable resiliency and adaptability to change.〔Ash, John, A Byzantine Journey, Random House (New York) 1995〕 ==Timeframes== In its time, the Byzantine Empire was known as the Roman Empire, and its people identified as Roman. "Byzantine Empire" is a term of convenience created by modern scholars, for the purpose of distinguishing between Rome of antiquity and its medieval successor state. The Byzantine Empire is set apart by its different territorial boundaries and Greek language, in contrast to Latin-speaking Rome. Christianity as a State Church is another major distinction from earlier Roman history. There is no exact agreed-upon date at which Eastern Rome became Byzantine - however, the conversion of Constantine, the death of Theodosius I, and the deposition of Romulus Augustulus are considered important turning-points. Like most nations and empires, the fortunes of the Romans/Byzantines ebbed with plagues, earthquakes, contested successions, and military challenges. Four distinct periods of sustained crises have been identified by historians: * The crisis of the Fourth and Fifth and Sixth Centuries, which saw invasions by the Visigoths, Huns, Alans, and Vandals across both the Rhine and Danube frontiers and sweeping through most of Europe. * The crisis of the Seventh Century, which saw the explosive expansion of the new Arab empire at the Byzantine's expense. * The crisis of the Eleventh Century, which saw simultaneous invasions by the Normans (in Italy), the Pechenegs (in the Crimea and the Balkans), and the Seljuks (in Asia Minor) and the devaluation of the nomisma. * The crises of the Thirteenth Century, which followed the Sack of Constantinople and partitioning of the empire by the Fourth Crusade. Several specific events have been suggested by various historians as marking the turning point: * 602 - Start of the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–28, which exhausted the Empire's resources and contributed to major territorial losses during the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. * 634 – Start of the Byzantine-Arab Wars * 636 - The Battle of Yarmouk * 1025 – Death of the soldier-emperor Basil II * 1071 – The Battle of Manzikert〔Runciman, ''Fall'', 2.〕 * 1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon * 1180 – Death of Manuel I Komnenos * 1185 – Demise of the Komnenos dynasty * 1204 – The Sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade〔 Of these, the Byzantine-Arab Wars and the Battle of Manzikert have traditionally been considered the most significant. However, recent books by Paul Magdalino and John Birkenmeier have re-evaluated the position of the empire in the 12th century, citing the collapse under the Angeloi (1185–1204) as the most decisive turning point in the empire's fortunes. Although this view is not universally held, historians generally agree that after the Fourth Crusade in 1204, the empire was only a shadow of its former self. The death of Michael VIII in 1282 marks the last period of Byzantine success on anything more than a minor scale. From this date onwards, the empire entered its final decline. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Decline of the Byzantine Empire」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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